From Punjab’s collapsing aquifers to the shrinking Ogallala, groundwater depletion is fast becoming agriculture’s invisible crisis. By 2050, feeding 10 billion people will demand 40 per cent more food and far smarter water use. India, Israel, the U.S. and Brazil offer contrasting lessons—from over-extraction to precision irrigation and large-scale wastewater reuse. The message is clear: Water and nutrients must be managed together, through fertigation, recycling, and farmer-led innovation. With the right policies, technologies, and incentives, the world can turn a looming water crisis into a foundation for resilient, regenerative farming.

From Punjab’s collapsing aquifers to the shrinking Ogallala beneath the U.S. heartland, groundwater depletion poses a silent but growing threat to global food security.  By 2050, the global population will exceed 10 billion, with India alone reaching 1.6 billion. Feeding this surge requires at least 40 per cent more food and significantly more water—not just for crops but also for livestock, processing, and energy. The pressing challenge is not only water availability but efficient use, especially the integration of fertiliser management into irrigation practices.

Groundwater is vital for agriculture worldwide, but sustainable management is complex. Fertigation—applying soluble fertilisers through irrigation—boosts water and nutrient efficiency, yet adoption varies widely due to differences in hydrology, governance, technology, and policies. Four regions—India, Israel, the U.S. and Brazil —offer critical lessons on balancing these challenges.

India: Over extraction Amid Untapped Potential

India leads the world in groundwater extraction, pumping over 250 cubic kilometres annually—more than the combined total of the United States and China. Over 85 per cent of this extraction is consumed by agriculture, intensifying severe depletion in states such as Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat, now designated “groundwater dark zones.”

“Restoring India’s soils and water systems is not just an ecological imperative—it is an economic strategy. From Odisha’s 500-acre intervention that lifted 410 households, to Ethiopia’s nutrient-water budgeting, the lesson is clear: if irrigation is designed to conserve rather than consume, and cropping systems are resilient by design, we can regenerate 140 million hectares and reclaim 25 million hectares of degraded land. The future of food security lies in how we manage every drop and every hectare”

—- Dr Himanshu Pathak, Director General of ICRISAT

Yet India is not inherently water-scarce. The country’s freshwater resources total roughly 4,000 billion cubic metres, of which about 1,123 bcm is usable after losses from evaporation and geographic constraints—395 bcm from groundwater and 728 bcm from surface sources. The problem lies in inefficiencies: Outdated irrigation techniques and suboptimal fertiliser use keep water stress levels persistently high.

Addressing these challenges, the Indian government has pledged more than $100 billion over five years to rural water supply, irrigation infrastructure, sewage treatment, and urban water management, implemented through flagship programs like AMRUT 2.0 and Jal Shakti–NMCG. “Restoring India’s soils and water systems is not just an ecological imperative—it is an economic strategy. From Odisha’s 500-acre intervention that lifted 410 households, to Ethiopia’s nutrient-water budgeting, the lesson is clear: if irrigation is designed to conserve rather than consume, and cropping systems are resilient by design, we can regenerate 140 million hectares and reclaim 25 million hectares of degraded land. The future of food security lies in how we manage every drop and every hectare”, mentioned Dr Himanshu Pathak, Director General of ICRISAT at MSS@100 Conference.

“ In regions traditionally cultivating rice, a shift to alternative crops has led to concerns about declining groundwater levels. This may be attributed to the fact that paddy fields, with their characteristic water-logged conditions during the monsoon, help recharge the groundwater table. The change in cropping pattern may inadvertently disrupt this natural recharge cycle. Further scientific studies are needed to confirm and understand the long-term hydrological impact of such shifts ’’

— Rajib Chakraborty, National President, SFIA

“In Western Maharashtra, we’ve seen how simple, farmer-led innovation can turn water scarcity into opportunity. Affordable rainwater harvesting tanks keep fields irrigated for half the year, drip irrigation with fertigation cuts water use to one-tenth while nourishing the soil, and crop diversification reduces the overall water footprint,’’ added Rajib Chakraborty, National President, SFIA. Complementing these initiatives, pilot projects by ICRISAT in Telangana, Karnataka, and Maharashtra demonstrate the promise of micro-irrigation and fertigation scheduling, achieving yield improvements of 20–40 per cent alongside water savings up to 30 per cent. Yet, these techniques remain confined to pockets, and wastewater reuse languishes below 5 per cent. 

Israel: Efficiency Born of Necessity

In stark contrast, Israel has turned scarcity into a story of innovation and resilience. With just 1.2 billion cubic metres of usable freshwater annually for 8.7 million people, Israel not only feeds itself but also leads the world in agri-tech exports.

“ Artificial Intelligence is expected to become the backbone of water management – from large-scale aquifer mapping to precise fertigation in individual fields. Yet in the Indian context, the human factor is critical: millions of farmers and water professionals need training and empowerment to work with these digital systems. The future is therefore not only AI as the operating system of water management, but the combination of advanced technology with India’s vast human capital, creating resilient, inclusive, and sustainable water governance ’’

— Noa Amsalem, Water Attach’e, Embassy of Israel in India

“ In Israel, we recycle over 90 per cent of our wastewater, and much of it goes back into agriculture. The Shafdan system south of Tel Aviv treats wastewater from over two million people, purifies it through soil aquifer treatment, and delivers it to farms in the Negev desert nearly 200 kilometres away,” mentioned Dr Lior Asaf, Senior International Development and Water Resources Consultant. “For India, the opportunity lies in building similar economic and logistical bridges between treatment plants and farms, particularly in peri-urban and industrial hubs like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra. The capacity is there; what’s missing are the last-mile delivery systems and pricing models to make reuse a reality,” he added.

In 1960, Israel’s water consumption closely matched natural recharge. By the early 2000s, growing demand outpaced sustainable supply. Instead of over-extracting aquifers, Israel diversified its water portfolio. 

“For India, the opportunity lies in building similar economic and logistical bridges between treatment plants and farms, particularly in peri-urban and industrial hubs like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra. The capacity is there; what’s missing are the last-mile delivery systems and pricing models to make reuse a reality ”

– Dr Lior Asaf, Senior International Development and Water Resources Consultant

“Israel’s key achievement has been precisely this shift: moving from reliance on natural water sources (groundwater and surface water) to manufactured water (desalinated seawater and treated wastewater). Strategic decisions in the early 2000s – building large-scale desalination plants and mandating wastewater reuse in agriculture – fundamentally transformed the water system ,’’ mentioned Noa Amsalem, Water Attach’e, Embassy of Israel in India.

“With Ayala’s Natural Biological Systems technology, we can treat 3.8 million litres of water daily to a consistently high standard, ready for reuse in aquaculture and landscaping. This is a decentralized, low-energy, chemical-free solution that works with gravity and solar power, fits within just 2,000 square metres, and blends naturally into the landscape ’’

— Eli Cohen, Founder & CEO, Ayala Water & Ecology

“ Today, aquifers are still monitored and protected, but they are no longer the sole backbone of national water security. From this perspective, a dual analogy can be made: like oil, groundwater is a limited resource whose value rises as its reserves shrink. Even more, it is like gold – a finite resource whose price is determined by its scarcity, and whose value for agriculture and sustaining life will only continue to grow. The difference is that water is too precious to be used only once ,” she added.

Wastewater recycling surged to 600–700 million cubic metres per year, accounting for over 90 per cent of treated sewage reuse—the highest rate worldwide. Desalination plants add 600–800 million cubic metres annually, with projections to exceed 1,000 million by 2030. “With Ayala’s Natural Biological Systems technology, we can treat 3.8 million litres of water daily to a consistently high standard, ready for reuse in aquaculture and landscaping. This is a decentralized, low-energy, chemical-free solution that works with gravity and solar power, fits within just 2,000 square metres, and blends naturally into the landscape ,’’ stated Eli Cohen, Founder & CEO, Ayala Water & Ecology. “For us, it’s not just about water treatment—it’s about setting a new benchmark for sustainable aquaculture, where environmental stewardship and industrial efficiency go hand in hand,” Eli advocated.

Israel’s precision irrigation technologies combine drip irrigation with fertigation, saving up to 60 per cent water, 40 per cent fertiliser, energy, and labor, while boosting crop yields by 30–100 per cent, depending on crop type. “In Bundelkhand, we are showing that even in one of India’s most drought-prone regions, water scarcity does not have to mean low productivity. By combining smart drip irrigation, precision fertigation, soil-moisture monitoring, and real-time agronomic advice, farmers are now growing citrus, pomegranate, and vegetables with a fraction of the water once used for flood irrigation. This is not just a pilot—it’s a scalable blueprint for climate-resilient dryland farming across India’s semi-arid zones,” mentioned Dr Asaf. 

“ The Shafdan wastewater treatment plant, serving the greater Tel Aviv area, is a cornerstone of this success. Treated wastewater from Shafdan is recharged into the coastal aquifer, undergoing further natural filtration. This process, known as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR), not only purifies the water to high standards suitable for unrestricted irrigation of all crops but also replenishes the aquifer itself, acting as a barrier against seawater intrusion ’’

– Ram Lisaey, Head of Global Agronomy, Netafim

Indian companies like Jain Irrigation are replicating similar gains domestically. For example, a wastewater reuse pilot in Ahmedabad irrigates 55 hectares; scaling this to 1,000 million litres per day (MLD) could support 30,000 hectares and benefit 30,000 farming households, aligning closely with India’s ambition to double farmer incomes. “Through the India-Israel Centres of Excellence, we have shown how precision irrigation, protected cultivation, and water-saving practices can be adapted to local conditions and scaled through farmer training. Similarly, in Africa, MASHAV’s programs are helping communities in dryland regions build drought resilience—whether through drip irrigation, water harvesting, or improved water quality management. The goal is the same in both geographies: to match the right technology with the right training so that water becomes a tool for growth, not a constraint,” added Ram Lisaey, Head of Global Agronomy, Netafim. 

Israel’s integrated multi-source water management, synchronized nutrient application, and real-time metering set a global benchmark in groundwater-positive agriculture, illustrating how coordinated policy and technology can sustain growth amid climate uncertainty.

United States: Technological Sophistication, Policy Fragmentation

The United States leads technologically but grapples with fragmented groundwater governance. The Ogallala Aquifer—a vast underground reservoir stretching over 450,000 square kilometres across eight states—supplies nearly 30 per cent of U.S. irrigation water and underpins over $20 billion in crop production annually, including wheat, corn, and cotton.

“The first Green Revolution gave us fertilisers, credit, and fair pricing, but it also left a legacy of polluted aquifers, biodiversity loss, and public health costs we can no longer ignore. The Ogallala Aquifer is a warning of what happens when we overdraw, yet Nebraska shows that decline can be slowed with precision irrigation, nitrate management, and real-time monitoring’’

— Prof Chittaranjan Ray, Director of the Nebraska Water Center at the University of Nebraska

Decades of over-extraction have depleted water tables by more than 50 metres in parts of Texas and Kansas since the 1950s, with annual declines up to one metre. “The first Green Revolution gave us fertilisers, credit, and fair pricing, but it also left a legacy of polluted aquifers, biodiversity loss, and public health costs we can no longer ignore. The Ogallala Aquifer is a warning of what happens when we overdraw, yet Nebraska shows that decline can be slowed with precision irrigation, nitrate management, and real-time monitoring’’, mentioned Prof Chittaranjan Ray, Director of the Nebraska Water Center at the University of Nebraska. Nebraska offers a model through its Natural Resources Districts (NRDs), which enforce metering, monitor recharge, and regulate withdrawals, achieving stable or even rising water levels in some areas.

“The Ogallala experience teaches us that groundwater governance works best when it’s democratic, transparent, and locally owned. In Kansas and Nebraska, farmers themselves, through elected Groundwater Management Districts, set pumping limits, monitor wells, and coordinate recharge. Over 95 per cent of wells are metered and tracked, making water an accountable public asset,’’ mentioned Bernhard L. Kiep, Managing Director at Bermad Brazil.

“Programs like the Local Enhanced Management Area in Sheridan County cut water use by 20 per cent in five years without hurting yields—because farmers embraced precision irrigation, crop-switching, and planning. The real breakthrough was cultural: treating water like money in a savings account, where deposits must exceed withdrawals, and building peer-driven responsibility rather than top-down enforcement. That’s the mindset shift India urgently needs,” advocated Bernhard.

Technologically, the U.S. excels with advanced center-pivot irrigation systems evolved into variable-rate irrigation (VRI) using GPS, telemetry, and satellite imagery to optimize water application. Soil moisture sensors and weather-based irrigation scheduling boost water-use efficiency up to 90 per cent. Fertigation is entrenched in high-value crops: over 85 per cent of California’s almond orchards use drip irrigation combined with fertigation to precisely match nutrient delivery to crop needs. Vineyards and vegetable farms similarly rely heavily on fertigation to increase yields and reduce waste.

However, fragmented water governance, outdated fertiliser regulations, and inconsistent enforcement blunt these technological gains. Systemic reforms integrating water and nutrient policies, modernizing input management, and mainstreaming fertigation beyond specialty crops are vital to safeguard U.S. aquifers.

Brazil: Water-Rich but Facing Growing Risks

Brazil commands nearly 12 per cent of the world’s freshwater reserves, including the vast Guarani Aquifer spanning four countries. Historically underutilized, expanding agricultural frontiers and shifting rainfall patterns now strain these reserves. “Brazil, steward of some of the world’s largest freshwater reserves like the Guarani Aquifer, is addressing water challenges through an integrated, multi-stakeholder approach grounded in sustainable agriculture principles. Led by the Geological Survey, expanded monitoring and advanced data systems—including satellite mapping of rapidly growing center-pivot irrigation—are providing critical insights to manage water resources effectively and ensure long-term agricultural viability,” mentioned Angelo de Queiroz Mauricio, Agricultural Attaché to the Embassy of Brazil. 

“Brazil, steward of some of the world’s largest freshwater reserves like the Guarani Aquifer, is addressing water challenges through an integrated, multi-stakeholder approach grounded in sustainable agriculture principles. Led by the Geological Survey, expanded monitoring and advanced data systems—including satellite mapping of rapidly growing center-pivot irrigation—are providing critical insights to manage water resources effectively and ensure long-term agricultural viability ”

— Angelo de Queiroz Mauricio, Agricultural Attaché to the Embassy of Brazil

In the MATOPIBA region—covering Bahia, Tocantins, Piauí, and Maranhão—groundwater management is evolving through permits, licensing, and emerging pilot programs leveraging real-time telemetry to monitor withdrawals. Basin committees also contribute to local water allocation and conservation funding, though enforcement capacity varies. To support farmers facing shifting hydrological realities and dry-season groundwater reliance for crops like sugarcane, maize, and coffee, Embrapa has developed a robust toolkit. 

This includes an extensive agrometeorological network for irrigation scheduling, the ZARC risk zoning and Plantio Certo digital platform for planting guidance, and crop-specific water management protocols such as deficit irrigation for sugarcane, controlled irrigation for maize and sorghum, and precision scheduling for coffee during critical growth stages.Irrigation currently accounts for 30 per cent of Brazil’s agricultural GDP but only covers 10 per cent of cultivated land—a figure expected to rise sharply under the Irriga+ Brasil program, which aims to add over 4 million hectares of irrigated land by 2030.

“Brazil, though custodian of 12 per cent of the planet’s freshwater, is hobbled by inequitable access and fragile hydrology. In Western Bahia, rainfall has plummeted from 1,800 mm to 950 mm even as irrigation withdrawals soared from 30 to 76 m³/s. The Urucuia Aquifer, with 121.6 m³/s effectively available, sees a mere 12.4 m³/s formally granted. At Bermad Brazil, we champion stewardship—via telemetry, precision fertigation, and valve intelligence—to reconcile scarcity with sustainability ”

— Bernhard L. Kiep, Managing Director at Bermad Brazil

Infact, the prospect for Indo-Brazilian collaboration in water management is both timely and tantalizing. By harmonizing Brazil’s sophisticated monitoring networks and basin governance with India’s rich tapestry of community-led groundwater stewardship, extensive micro-irrigation programs, and granular village-level water budgeting, the nations stand on the cusp of a transformative alliance. “India’s flourishing IT ecosystem offers a fertile ground for co-developing agritech innovations and jointly validating satellite-driven aquifer storage change models spanning the Cerrado to the Indo-Gangetic and Deccan basins. The alchemy of Brazil’s climate and agronomic risk management tools with India’s grassroots water governance and digital prowess could herald a new era—one where water-use efficiency is optimized, farmer resilience fortified, and the aquifers so essential to our agricultural future are vigilantly safeguarded,” recommended Angelo.

Reimagining Groundwater Policy for the 21st Century

Dating back to the Green Revolution, Punjab’s agricultural transformation has been nothing short of spectacular. Wheat and rice production rose nearly fivefold, with rice output surging by 39 percent. Yet, this remarkable success came with unintended consequences. The aggressive expansion of rice cultivation virtually erased pulses and oilseeds from the landscape.

“ Nation must now pivot toward crop diversification, greater investment and innovation in irrigation management, and robust value chain development for alternative crops. This must be accompanied by structural reforms—such as price deficiency payments, decentralised and targeted procurement, and the liberalisation of interstate trade—all underpinned by a reinvigorated commitment to agricultural R&D ’’

— Prof. Pratap Singh Birthal, Director, ICAR–NIAP

Today, Punjab’s entire cultivable area is irrigated, but the irony is stark: Canal irrigation has largely been replaced by reckless groundwater extraction in a state that receives just 600 mm of annual rainfall. At MSS@100 Conference, Prof. Pratap Singh Birthal, Director, ICAR–NIAP, argued, “Nation must now pivot toward crop diversification, greater investment and innovation in irrigation management, and robust value chain development for alternative crops. This must be accompanied by structural reforms—such as price deficiency payments, decentralised and targeted procurement, and the liberalisation of interstate trade—all underpinned by a reinvigorated commitment to agricultural R&D.’’

“To embed micronutrients as a lever for groundwater and nutritional security, systemic reforms are imperative. Key steps include: bringing Zinc, Boron, and Iron under NBS or a micronutrient pool; co-funding nano and chelate R&D; mandating KVK training via PM-Kisan advisories; linking Soil Health Cards to e-commerce through NBSS & LUP Bhumi maps; and streamlining FCO registration while curbing counterfeits through IMMA-led audits ”

— Dr. Rahul Mirchandani, Chairman & Managing Director of Aries Agro Limited

The overuse of nitrogenous fertilizers has devastated soil health, while state subsidies remain heavily skewed in favour of water-thirsty staples like rice and wheat. Tackling this multifaceted crisis demands bold, coordinated action that marries water management with nutrient stewardship.

“Across India, integrated nutrient-water strategies are proving their worth,” said Dr. Rahul Mirchandani, Chairman & Managing Director of Aries Agro Limited. “From zinc and boron-enriched fertigation pilots for paddy and wheat in Punjab and Haryana, to Karnataka’s Bhoochetana project that maps soil fertility and delivers area-specific micronutrient blends boosting pulse and oilseed yields by up to 66 percent. In Tamil Nadu, precision farming combining drip irrigation with liquid chelated micronutrients is improving both water-use efficiency and nutrient uptake for high-value crops like banana and sugarcane. The common thread is clear: when irrigation and nutrition are delivered together, tailored to local soils, farmers can save water, correct deficiencies, and lift yields sustainably.”

A critical piece of the puzzle is metering and volumetric pricing of groundwater, as practiced in Israel and parts of the United States. “Free water breeds waste, distorts value, and stifles innovation. India needs a smart agricultural water grid—featuring meters, data-driven allocation, and accountable consumption—not to control farmers, but to empower them. When inputs are linked to outcomes, water ceases to be an infinite entitlement and becomes a valued business asset,” explained Dr. Lior Asaf.

On cropping patterns and incentives to combat groundwater depletion, Dr. Asaf emphasized a pragmatic, just transition: “This is not a clarion call to abruptly ban paddy cultivation, but an urgent appeal for incentivizing millets, pulses, and other water-wise crops in arid and semi-arid zones through thoughtful pricing, assured procurement, and equitable irrigation access. Millets, while not a panacea, offer a compelling proposition—naturally water-efficient, requiring minimal inputs, and far more resilient to the caprices of climate than paddy or sugarcane. In the quest to conserve our precious groundwater, they must be embraced not as a mere alternative, but as an indispensable partner.” 

Groundwater is not an inexhaustible resource, nor is agriculture a zero-sum game. With smart policies, targeted incentives, and farmer empowerment at the core, India can transform its water crisis into an opportunity for regenerative farming that nourishes both soil and society for generations to come.

—- Suchetana Choudhury (suchetana.choudhuri@agrospectrumindia.com)